Contents

Statistical Symbols………………………………………………………………………………inside front cover
Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ix
Descriptive Statistics……………………………………..1
Populations, Samples, and Elements……………………………………………………………………………. 1
Probability………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Types of Data…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Frequency Distributions…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Measures of Central Tendency…………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Measures of Variability……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
Z Scores………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Inferential Statistics……………………………………. 15
Statistics and Parameters………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Estimating the Mean of a Population…………………………………………………………………………. 19
t Scores ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Hypothesis Testing……………………………………… 24
Steps of Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
z-Tests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
The Meaning of Statistical Significance………………………………………………………………………. 28
Type I and Type II Errors………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Power of Statistical Tests…………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
Directional Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
Testing for Differences between Groups……………………………………………………………………… 32
Post Hoc Testing and Subgroup Analyses……………………………………………………………………. 33
Nonparametric and Distribution-Free Tests………………………………………………………………… 34
Correlational and Predictive Techniques…………….. 36
Correlation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
Regression………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
Survival Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Choosing an Appropriate Inferential or Correlational Technique………………………………….. 43
Asking Clinical Questions: Research Methods……….. 45
Simple Random Samples…………………………………………………………………………………………… 46

viii Contents
Stratified Random Samples……………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
Cluster Samples………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
Systematic Samples………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
Experimental Studies……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
Research Ethics and Safety……………………………………………………………………………………….. 51
Nonexperimental Studies………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
Answering Clinical Questions I: Searching for and
Assessing the Evidence…………………………………. 59
Hierarchy of Evidence………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
Systematic Reviews………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60
Answering Clinical Questions II: Statistics in Medical
Decision Making………………………………………… 68
Validity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 68
Reliability……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
Reference Values……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
Sensitivity and Specificity…………………………………………………………………………………………. 70
Receiver Operating Characteristic Curves…………………………………………………………………… 74
Predictive Values……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
Likelihood Ratios…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
Prediction Rules………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 80
Decision Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
Epidemiology and Population Health………………… 86
Epidemiology and Overall Health……………………………………………………………………………… 86
Measures of Life Expectancy…………………………………………………………………………………….. 88
Measures of Disease Frequency…………………………………………………………………………………. 88
Measurement of Risk……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 92
Ultra-High-Yield Review………………………………101
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 105
Index……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 107

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