Table of Contents
General Anatomy
1 Human Phylogeny and Ontogeny
1.1 Human Phylogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Human Ontogeny:
Overview, Fertilization, and Earliest
Developmental Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Gastrulation, Neurulation, and Somite Formation . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Development of the Fetal Membranes and Placenta . . . . . 8
1.5 Development of the Pharyngeal (Branchial) Arches
in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Early Embryonic Circulation and the Development
of Major Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Bone Development and Remodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Ossification of the Limbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Development and Position of the Limbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Overview of the Human Body
2.1 The Human Body
(Proportions, Surface Areas, and Body Weights). . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 The Structural Design of the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Surface Anatomy of the Body, Landmarks
and Reference Lines
3.1 Terms of Location and Direction, Cardinal Planes
and Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Body Surface Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Body Surface Contours and Palpable Bony Prominences . . 28
3.4 Landmarks and Reference Lines on the Human Body . . . . . 30
3.5 Body Regions (Regional Anatomy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 The Bones and Joints
4.1 The Bony Skeleton and the Structure of Tubular Bones . . . . 34
4.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Joints:
Synarthroses and Diarthroses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Basic Principles of Joint Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5 The Muscles
5.1 The Skeletal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 The Tendons and Mechanisms
That Assist Muscle Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6 The Vessels
6.1 Overview of the Human Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 The Structure of Arteries and Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 The Terminal Vascular Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7 The Lymphatic System and Glands
7.1 The Human Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.2 Exocrine and Endocrine Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8 General Neuroanatomy
8.1 Development of the Central Nervous System (CNS) . . . . . . 54
8.2 Neural Crest Derivatives and the Development
of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8.3 Topography and Structure of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . 58
8.4 Cells of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.5 Structure of a Spinal Cord Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6 Sensory Innervation:
An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.7 Dermatomes and Cutaneous Nerve Territories . . . . . . . . . 66
8.8 Motor Innervation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.9 Differences between the Central
and Peripheral Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.10 The Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Trunk Wall
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Skeleton of the Trunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.2 The Bony Spinal Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.3 Development of the Spinal Column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.4 The Structure of a Vertebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.5 The Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.6 The Thoracic Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.7 The Lumbar Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.8 The Sacrum and Coccyx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.9 The Intervertebral Disk: Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . 92
1.10 The Ligaments of the Spinal Column:
Overview and Thoracolumbar Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.11 Overview of the Ligaments of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . 96
1.12 The Ligaments of the Upper Cervical Spine
(Atlanto-occipital and Atlantoaxial Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.13 The Intervertebral Facet Joints, Motion Segments,
and Range of Motion in Different Spinal Regions . . . . . . . . 100
1.14 The Uncovertebral Joints of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.15 Degenerative Changes in the Lumbar Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.16 The Thoracic Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
1.17 The Sternum and Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.18 The Costovertebral Joints and Thoracic Movements . . . . . 110
1.19 The Bony Pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
1.20 The Pelvic Ligaments and Pelvic Measurements . . . . . . . . . 114
1.21 The Sacroiliac Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2 Musculature: Functional Groups
2.1 The Muscles of the Trunk Wall, Their Origin
and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2 The Intrinsic Back Muscles:
Lateral Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.3 Medial Tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.4 The Short Nuchal and Craniovertebral Joint Muscles
and the Prevertebral Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.5 The Muscles of the Abdominal Wall:
Lateral and Oblique Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.6 Anterior and Posterior Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.7 The Functions of the Abdominal Wall Muscles . . . . . . . . 130
2.8 The Muscles of the Thoracic Cage
(Intercostales, Subcostales, Scaleni,
and Transversus thoracis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.9 The Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.10 The Muscles of the Pelvic Floor
(Pelvic Diaphragm, Urogenital Diaphragm, Sphincter
and Erectile Muscles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Back Muscles and Thoracolumbar Fascia . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.2 The Intrinsic Back Muscles:
Lateral and Medial Tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.3 Short Nuchal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.4 The Chest Wall Muscles and Endothoracic Fascia . . . . . . . . 144
3.5 Thoracoabdominal Junction:
The Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6 The Lateral and Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles . . . . . . . 148
3.7 Structure of the Abdominal Wall
and Rectus Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.8 The Pelvic Floor Muscles:
Overview of the Perineal Region
and Superficial Fasciae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.9 Structure of the Pelvic Floor and Pelvic Spaces:
Female versus Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.10 The Muscles of the Female Pelvic Floor and Wall . . . . . . . . . 156
3.11 The Pelvic Floor Muscles:
The Levator ani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.12 Their Relation to Organs and Vessels
in Males and Females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.2 The Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.4 The Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Anterior Trunk Wall:
Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels . . . . . 170
5.2 Posterior Trunk Wall:
Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels . . . . . 172
5.3 Posterior Trunk Wall:
Posterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.4 Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.5 Anterior Trunk Wall:
Overview and Location of Clinically Important
Nerves and Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.6 Nerves, Blood Vessels, and Lymphatics
in the Female Breast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.7 The Inguinal Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.8 Anterior Abdominal Wall: Anatomy and Weak Spots . . . . . 184
5.9 Inguinal and Femoral Hernias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.10 Rare External Hernias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.11 Diagnosis and Treatment of Hernias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.12 Development of the External Genitalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.13 Male External Genitalia:
Testicular Descent and the Spermatic Cord . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.14 The Testis and Epididymis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.15 The Fasciae and Erectile Tissues of the Penis . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.16 Nerves and Vessels of the Penis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.17 Female External Genitalia:
Overview and Episiotomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.18 Neurovascular Structures, Erectile Tissues,
Erectile Muscles, and Vestibule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Upper Limb
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Upper Limb as a Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.2 Integration of the Shoulder Girdle into the Skeleton
of the Trunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
1.3 The Bones of the Shoulder Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.4 The Bones of the Upper Limb:
The Humerus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.5 Torsion of the Humerus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
1.6 The Radius and Ulna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
1.7 The Articular Surfaces of the Radius and Ulna . . . . . . . . . 220
1.8 The Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
1.9 The Carpal Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.10 The Joints of the Shoulder:
Overview, Clavicular Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.11 Ligaments of the Clavicular and
Scapulothoracic Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1.12 The Capsule and Ligaments of the
Glenohumeral Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
1.13 The Subacromial Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.14 The Subacromial Bursa and Subdeltoid Bursa . . . . . . . . . . . 234
1.15 Movements of the Shoulder Girdle and Shoulder Joint . . . 236
1.16 The Elbow Joint
as a Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
1.17 Capsule and Ligaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1.18 The Forearm:
Proximal and Distal Radioulnar Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
1.19 Movements of the Elbow and Radioulnar Joints . . . . . . . . . 244
1.20 The Ligaments of the Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
1.21 The Carpal Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
1.22 The Ligaments of the Fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
1.23 The Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.24 Movements of the Hand and Finger Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
2 Musculature: Functional Groups
2.1 Functional Muscle Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2.2 The Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle:
Trapezius, Sternocleidomastoid, and Omohyoid . . . . . . 258
2.3 Serratus anterior, Subclavius, Pectoralis minor,
Levator scapulae, and Rhomboid major and minor . . . . 260
2.4 The Rotator Cuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
2.5 The Deltoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
2.6 Latissimus dorsi and Teres major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.7 Pectoralis major and Coracobrachialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2.8 The Muscles of the Arm:
Biceps brachii and Brachialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
2.9 Triceps brachii and Anconeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
2.10 The Muscles of the Forearm:
The Superficial and Deep Flexors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
2.11 The Radialis Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.12 The Superficial and Deep Extensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.13 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand:
The Thenar and Hypothenar Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.14 Lumbricals and Interossei (Metacarpal Muscles) . . . . . . . 282
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle
and Shoulder Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
3.2 The Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint and Arm . . . . 286
3.3 The Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle
and Shoulder Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
3.4 The Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint and Arm . . . . . 290
3.5 The Anterior Muscles of the Forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.6 The Posterior Muscles of the Forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
3.7 Cross Sections of the Arm and Forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
3.8 The Tendon Sheaths of the Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
3.9 The Dorsal Digital Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.10 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand:
Superficial Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3.11 Middle Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3.12 Deep Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
4.2 The Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
4.4 The Brachial Plexus:
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
4.5 Supraclavicular Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.6 Infraclavicular Part—Overview and Short Branches . . . . 318
4.7 Infraclavicular Part—The Musculocutaneous Nerve
and Axillary Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.8 Infraclavicular Part—The Radial Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
4.9 Infraclavicular Part—The Ulnar Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.10 Infraclavicular Part—The Median Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels:
Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.2 Posterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.3 The Shoulder Region: Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.4 The Axilla:
Anterior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.5 Posterior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
5.6 The Anterior Brachial Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.7 The Shoulder Region: Posterior and Superior Views . . . . . 340
5.8 The Posterior Brachial Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.9 The Elbow (Cubital Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.10 The Anterior Forearm Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.11 The Posterior Forearm Region
and the Dorsum of the Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.12 The Palm of the Hand:
Epifascial Nerves and Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.13 Vascular Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.14 The Carpal Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.15 The Ulnar Tunnel and Anterior Carpal Region . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Lower Limb
1 Bones, Ligaments, and Joints
1.1 The Lower Limb: General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
1.2 The Anatomical and Mechanical Axes of the Lower Limb . 362
1.3 The Bones of the Pelvic Girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
1.4 The Femur: Importance of the Femoral Neck Angle . . . . . 366
1.5 The Femoral Head and Deformities of the
Femoral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
1.6 The Patella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
1.7 The Tibia and Fibula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
1.8 The Bones of the Foot from the Dorsal
and Plantar Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.9 The Bones of the Foot from the Lateral
and Medial Views; Accessory Tarsal Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
1.10 The Hip Joint: Articulating Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
1.11 The Ligaments of the Hip Joint:
Stabilization of the Femoral Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
1.12 Nutrition of the Femoral Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
1.13 Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Hip Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
1.14 The Movements and Biomechanics of the Hip Joint . . . . . . 386
1.15 The Development of the Hip Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
1.16 The Knee Joint:
Articulating Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
1.17 The Ligaments of the Knee Joint: An Overview . . . . . . . . 392
1.18 The Cruciform and Collateral Ligaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
1.19 The Menisci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
1.20 The Movements of the Knee Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
1.21 Capsule and Joint Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
1.22 The Joints of the Foot:
Overview of the Articulating Bones and Joints . . . . . . . . 402
1.23 Articular Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
1.24 The Talocrural and Subtalar Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
1.25 The Ligaments of the Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
1.26 The Movements of the Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
1.27 Overview of the Plantar Vault and the Transverse Arch . . . 412
1.28 The Longitudinal Arch of the Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
1.29 The Sesamoid Bones and Deformities of the Toes . . . . . . . 416
1.30 Human Gait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
2 Musculature: Functional Groups
2.1 The Muscles of the Lower Limb: Classification . . . . . . . . . . 420
2.2 The Hip and Gluteal Muscles:
The Inner Hip Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
2.3 The Outer Hip Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
2.4 The Adductor Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
2.5 The Anterior Thigh Muscles:
The Extensor Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
2.6 The Flexor Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
2.7 The Leg Muscles:
The Anterior and Lateral Compartments
(Extensor and Fibularis Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
2.8 The Posterior Compartment
(Superficial Flexor Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
2.9 The Posterior Compartment
(Deep Flexor Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
2.10 The Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot:
Dorsum and Medial and Lateral Sole of the Foot . . . . . . 438
2.11 The Intrinsic Muscles of the foot: Central Sole. . . . . . . . . 440
3 Musculature: Topographical Anatomy
3.1 The Muscles of the Thigh
Hip and Gluteal Region from the
Medial and Anterior Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
3.2 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Anterior View;
Origins and Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
3.3 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Lateral
and Posterior Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
3.4 Hip and Gluteal Region from the Posterior View;
Origins and Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
3.5 The Muscles of the Leg
from the Lateral and Anterior Views;
Origins and Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
3.6 from the Posterior View; Origins and Insertions . . . . . . . 452
3.7 The Tendon Sheaths and Retinacula of the Foot . . . . . . . . . 454
3.8 The Intrinsic Foot Muscles from the Plantar View;
the Plantar Aponeurosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
3.9 The Intrinsic Foot Muscles from the Plantar View . . . . . . . . 458
3.10 Origins and Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
3.11 Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot . . . . 462
4 Neurovascular Systems: Forms and Relations
4.1 The Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
4.2 The Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
4.3 The Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
4.4 The Structure of the Lumbosacral Plexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
4.5 The Nerves of the Lumbar Plexus:
The Iliohypogastric, Ilioinguinal, Genitofemoral,
and Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.6 The Obturator and Femoral Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.7 The Nerves of the Sacral Plexus:
The Superior Gluteal, Inferior Gluteal,
and Posterior Femoral Cutaneous Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
4.8 The Sciatic Nerve
(Overview and Sensory Distribution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
4.9 The Sciatic Nerve (Course and Motor Distribution) . . . . 480
4.10 The Pudendal and Coccygeal Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5 Neurovascular Systems: Topographical Anatomy
5.1 Surface Anatomy and Superficial Nerves and Vessels:
Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
5.2 Posterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5.3 The Anterior Femoral Region Including
the Femoral Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
5.4 Arterial Supply to the Thigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
5.5 The Gluteal Region:
Overview of its Vessels and Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
5.6 The Sciatic Foramen and Sciatic Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
5.7 The Ischioanal Fossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
5.8 The Pudendal Canal and Perineal Region
(Urogenital and Anal Region) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
5.9 The Posterior Thigh Region and Popliteal Region . . . . . . . . 500
5.10 The Posterior Leg Region and the Tarsal Tunnel . . . . . . . . . 502
5.11 The Sole of the Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
5.12 The Anterior Leg Region and Dorsum of the Foot:
Cutaneous Innervation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
5.13 The Arteries of the Dorsum of the Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Appendix
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
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